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Theory and Design in Counseling and Psychotherapy
Susan X Day , Iowa State University and University of Houston
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CHAPTER 11: Systemic Approaches: Culture and
Gender Bases
Key Terms and Essential Concepts
Expectations: External sources set criteria for the behavior
and characteristics that are considered appropriate for different groups of
people. Social institutions typically teach what is regarded as suitable for
men and women, for people in particular roles or professions, for people in
different racial groups, or for people with specific religious affiliations.
The external expectations, once taught, become internal to individuals who learn
to live up to what is customary and who are surprised by others who do not.
People learn to respond to what has been defined as normative according to situational
demands that require expected behaviors.
Gender expectations: Positive and negative qualities set as
societal standards for femininity and masculinity. Stereotypes of femininity
include being nice to others, polite, sociable, nurturing, aesthetically pleasing,
creative, and neat, as well as being neurotic, hysterical, weak, devious, manipulative,
dependent, bitchy, unreasonable, and flighty. Masculine stereotypes include
being strong, silent, successful, tough, confident, independent, and self-reliant,
as well as being aggressive, violent, and a daredevil. Gender characteristics
are internalized and become part of identity, fusing a sense of self with external
expectations.
Gender role socialization: The developmental process whereby
human beings are taught gender role differences is called gender role socialization.
People are taught how to appear and behave within the expectations of society
for men and women. The process starts early with embryos defined by sex even
before birth and as children read stories and play adult roles. Gender expectations
are particularly salient during puberty as teens begin to relate romantically
and sexually, and then roles solidify in adulthood with family role expectations.
Mirror image stereotypes: When two groups are defined as being
characterized by opposite traits, the pairs reflect each other. The image of
a typical male, for example, is supposed to be strong, while the typical female
would then be weak. Slave owners could be said to be responsible, taking care
of the plantation and its inhabitants, while slaves would then be careless and
in need of supervision. Such complementarity gives an impression of inevitability,
as people in different groups seem deserving of privilege while other groups
are assigned lower status.
Instrumental versus expressive: According to mirror image stereotyping
for men and women, men actively exert their influence to manage their lives
while women are sensitive to situational demands and passively accept what is
happening to them and around them. Their orientation is expressive, meaning
that they are emotional rather than functional.
Rationality versus relationality: Feminist authors redefined
the mirror image stereotypes of men and women to change the bias of instrumentality
versus expressiveness. Instead, women are said to possess a gift for relationships,
intuitively reading emotions and human needs, while men are said to be analytical,
logically dealing with all matters through intellectual reasoning while insensitive
to emotions and others’ needs.
Externalize: When people "
act out"
internal feelings, they
are said to externalize the emotions. An example is when someone is depressed
and she drives recklessly. When dealing with psychological issues, the focus
for an individual is outside the self. So, when a client describes unhappiness,
the description emphasizes external factors that create pressures without recognizing
how internal attitudes contribute to dealing with the situation.
Internalize: A person’s experiences are turned inward without
referring to the external factors involved. For example, Sally is teased as
"
silly"
and feels hurt. She focuses on her hurt and her silliness, rather than
recognizing the teasers could simply be wrong or mean. She "
owns"
the problem
rather than considering factors other than herself. Internalizing also refers
to a person taking into his internal sense of self such external influences
as societal messages or others’ opinions.
Minimizing bias: When diagnostic criteria are reduced in importance
so the client is seen as having fewer or less severe difficulties than other
similar clients, there is a minimizing effect. The danger is that the client
does not receive the help needed or is given inappropriate treatment because
problems were de-emphasized. For example, depression may be minimized among
mentally retarded people.
Overdiagnosis bias: When clients from a particular group are
consistently labeled with the same disorder, the diagnosis is being overutilized.
The clients may be receiving the diagnosis because they are members of the same
group, rather than from an objective analysis of symptoms.
Overpathologizing bias: When counselors demonstrate a consistent
pattern of characterizing client issues as examples of mental illness when other
more normal explanations might describe the client’s difficulties equally well,
they are said to be overpathologizing. Research has shown that clinicians consistently
perceive some groups as showing severe disturbances where other groups could
present similar symptoms and be perceived as less disturbed.
Underdiagnosis bias: When people from a particular group are
less likely to be diagnosed with a particular disorder, regardless of symptoms,
there is a bias suggesting such people don’t have such disorders. A medical
example is overlooking heart disease in women because the diagnosis is considered
more likely for men.
Role conflict: The expectations considered appropriate for
one role may be incompatible with the demands of other roles. For example, a
woman business leader is required to be assertive and decisive on the job, but
when she goes home to her children, she needs to be nurturing and responsive.
Sometimes the differences in expectations create confusion, and balancing a
stable identity with situational demands becomes difficult.
Role strain: A person who serves a number of demanding roles
experiences the stress of trying to meet multiple demands. Each position may
require a great deal of effort, and juggling several roles taxes energy and
an ability to keep track of the responsibilities for each function. Leisure
and relaxation become impossible, so the person is drained without much time
for rejuvenation. Unlike role conflict, a role strain can come from consistent
role demands such as being nurturant on the job, in the family, and in volunteer
duties.
Nonsexist therapy: Counselors attempt to avoid the influence
of society’s definitions of what is proper and healthy for men and women. For
example, a nonsexist career counselor would encourage clients to consider careers
that are unusual choices for their sex, as well as traditional ones.
Feminist therapy: Counselors, who avoid traditional stereotyping
of men and women, work to raise client awareness of the personal impact of gender
roles and the influence of power in relationships. Societal influences, such
as economic inequalities and media representation of ideal body images, are
raised in therapy as sources of psychological difficulties. To promote a sense
of personal power, clients are encouraged to explore their own evaluations of
societal messages and to possibly take political action to change attitudes
and practices.
Empowerment: The goal of gender- and culture-based counseling
is to raise awareness of societal influences for personal development and for
problematic psychological issues. Once awareness of outside pressures is evident,
however, the movement for counseling and for clients is to regain personal power
and to determine self-direction despite social restrictiveness. Empowerment
is considered the opposite of victimization.
Self-disclosure: When the counselor shares personal experiences
with the client, she is self-disclosing. Since therapy focuses on the client
and is designed to facilitate change for the client, too much counselor content
would change counseling into a conversation between friends. Feminist therapists,
however, note that counselors who never self-disclose enhance their position
of power and reduce mutuality.
Shared power: Collaborative methods in counseling give a message
to the client that both the client and the counselor share influence in the
relationship. Feminist therapists emphasize collaboration by bringing counseling
decisions into the open for mutual input. When techniques for change are introduced,
the purpose is explained and the client is asked if such methods seem reasonable.
Consciousness-raising: Bringing into awareness the impact of
gender bias and the inequalities of sexism in society allows the person to explore
embedded social psychological issues. When women realize that most women share
some personally painful issues, they feel less alone and self-blaming. Clients
can better deal with those difficulties originating in a society that prescribes
gender identity in narrow terms and endorses a subordinate position for all
women.
Gender intensification: During preadolescence, peer pressures
encourage young girls to subscribe to feminine stereotyping by being social
and submissive and to expect males to be independent and aggressive. Young girls
can lose touch with an earlier sense of self, become overly self-conscious,
and lack self-efficacy. Many turn away from interests in traditionally male
fields such as math and science. Others become depressed. Boys of the same age
are distressed if they do not fit masculine stereotypes. Feminist-oriented counseling
can offer psychological education regarding male-female equity and can encourage
identity development and social skills that are not stereotypical.
Racial identity: A part of an individual’s identity that involves
an inner sense of what it means to be of a specific race, such as Chinese, Latino,
or Caucasian. Awareness of personal racial implications may occur in stages,
according to some psychological studies. Racial awareness also includes attitudes
toward races other than one’s own.
Minority status: A group who share visible physical characteristics
located in a region where the group is fewer in number than the majority group
or who are underrepresented in leadership roles or higher economic levels are
considered to have minority status. Minority group members may have cultural
backgrounds different from the majority’s and additional distinctive experiences
stemming from their minority status. Generations of prejudicial treatment required
defensive behaviors of caution, mistrust, caginess, and secretiveness to survive.
Minority status may also induce biases against the majority values and a cynicism
for values that have not been universally applied to all groups.
Stereotyping: Beliefs about the similarities of everyone within
an identifiable group. Stereotyping often leads to ignoring individuals for
who they are as human beings and breeds distrust among groups.
Prejudice: A bias or opinion attributing a set of predetermined
characteristics (usually negative) to people belonging to a particular group.
Backlash effect: When matters of diversity are emphasized,
sometimes the highlighting of cultural differences itself creates a reaction
against the values intended. In drawing attention to different cultural practices,
stereotypes are reinforced. Furthermore, people rebel against preachiness.
Globalization: Media and communication technologies present
throughout the world spread information to every local area and create shared
experiences for everyone. Differences among people may become less prominent,
particularly for young people who develop with a global awareness of multiple
points of view rather than restricted regional views.
Complex hybrid identity: A sense of self develops within a
social context. Identity that is formed with the influences of television and
the Internet is not confined to the culture of the neighborhood, nation, or
region. Instead, combinations of geographical and social stimuli are experienced,
creating a hybrid identity with multiple connections to outside influences.
Native healers: Different cultures have a variety of healing
practices and practitioners that provide solace and change for those who subscribe
to them. Appropriate respect for other healing traditions is a part of cultural
sensitivity, so counselors ask clients about cultural practices and support
the use of helpful modalities.
Normalization: When a person feels intense emotion and experiences
difficulties, he or she may conclude, "
There is something wrong with me."
Sometimes,
regardless of the intensity of the feelings, problems are a part of typical
psychological development, change, or the reactions anyone would feel under
the circumstances. The sheer recognition that others have similar experiences
helps a person feel better, without minimizing what the person is going through.
Social action: Taking part in social activities designed to
create social change can be therapeutic to those who have suffered under social
inequities. Social involvement can be seen as a responsibility of professionals
who seek to help others overcome the difficulties induced by social unfairness.
Value systems: A collection of beliefs and priorities held
by individuals and shared by groups of people as culture or as subcultures.
Such concepts provide a moral compass, guides for personal choices, behavior,
and social interactions.
Victimization: When a group has been restrained or mistreated
through societal structures and pressures, they are the victims of forces outside
themselves. Analyzing the impact of unequal treatment explains the root cause
and development of psychological issues so the victim is not blamed.
Victimhood: Though becoming a victim is not within a person’s
control, it does not mandate a preoccupation with deficits in privileges nor
does unequal treatment excuse unacceptable behavior. To take on a mantle of
being a victim as though the word defines a person’s identity is self-defeating.
Instead, understanding social influences is intended to lead to an insight that
personal limits may have been set by external sources, and the individual can
make choices to negate restrictive thinking.
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