Comparison of the Content of the Principles of Learning and Teaching Section of the Praxis II Test with the Content of Psychology Applied to Teaching

As part of recent education reform efforts, many State Boards of Education and teacher education programs require that, as a condition for licensure, beginning teachers demonstrate that they are knowledgeable about the psychological and educational factors that are likely to affect how well their students will perform in the classroom. A popular instrument used for this purpose is the Praxis II, published by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). The Principles of Learning and Teaching section of the Praxis II assesses a beginning teacher's knowledge of those topics that are typically covered in an educational psychology course. Because Psychology Applied to Teaching (PAT) is closely aligned with the Principles of Teaching and Learning section of the Praxis II and has been praised for its open writing style and applicability to the classroom, we believe PAT will help prepare you to do well on this important assessment. The table below lists the topics and subtopics covered by the Principles of Learning and Teaching test (also available on the ETS web site at http://www.ets.org/praxis/) along with the chapter numbers and pages in PAT where discussions of these topics can be found.

Praxis II: Principles of Learning and Teaching	Psychology Applied to Teaching
I. Students as Learners:
Student Development and the Learning Process	Chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10
Theoretical foundations about how learning occurs: how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind	Chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10
Examples of important theorists	Chapter 2, pp. 23-26, 33-41, 45-50, 53-58 Chapter 7, pp. 212-217 Chapter 8, pp. 238-240, 254-255 Chapter 9, pp. 276-278, 282-285 Chapter 10, pp. 310-311, 334-335
Important terms that relate to learning theory	Key terms at end of Chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10 Most key points for Chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10
Students as Diverse Learners	Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 15
Differences in the Ways Students Learn and Perform	Chapters 2, 4, 5
Learning styles	Chapter 4, pp. 114-118
Multiple Intelligences	Chapter 4, pp. 107-114
Performance modes	Chapters 2, 5
Concrete operational thinkers	Chapter 2, pp. 37-38, 43-45
visual and aural learners	Chapter 5, p. 139
Gender differences	Chapter 4, pp. 118-127
Cultural expectations and styles	Chapter 5, pp. 136-139
Areas of exceptionality in students' learning	Chapter 6
Visual and perceptual difficulties	Chapter 6, pp. 183-184
Special physical or sensory challenges	Chapter 6, pp. 183-184
Learning disabilities	Chapter 6, pp. 190-195
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD); Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)	Chapter 6, pp. 192-193
Functional mental retardation	Chapter 6, pp. 186-189
Legislation and institutional responsibilities relating to exceptional students	Chapter 6
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)	Not covered
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)	Chapter 6, pp. 178-186
Inclusion, Mainstreaming, and "Least Restrictive Environment"	Chapter 6, pp. 179-181
IEP (Individualized Education Plan), including what, by law, must be included in each IEP	Chapter 6, p. 179
Approaches for accommodating various learning styles, intelligences, or exceptionalities	Chapters 4, 6
Differentiated instruction	Chapter 4, pp. 104, 129-130 Chapter 6, pp.177, 202-203 Chapter 15, p. 512
Alternative assessments	Chapter 4, pp. 112-113, 116-118
Testing modifications	Not covered
Process of second-language acquisition and strategies to support the learning of students for whom English is not a first language	Chapter 5, pp. 164-168
Understanding of influences of individual experiences, talents, and prior learning, as well as language, culture, family, and community values on students' learning	Chapters 2, 3, 5
Multicultural backgrounds	Chapter 5, pp. 136-152
Age-appropriate knowledge and behavior	Chapter 3, pp. 68-97
The student culture at school	Chapter 3, pp. 69-72, 75-76, 79-81, 85-87, 93-96
Family backgrounds	Chapter 5, pp. 140-147
Linguistic patterns and differences	Chapter 3, p. 73 Chapter 5, pp. 137-138
Cognitive patterns and differences	Chapter 2, pp. 35-40, 45-50, 53-62 Chapter 3, pp. 72-74, 77-78, 81-83, 87-91, 97
Social and emotional issues	Chapter 3, pp. 69-72, 75-76, 79-81, 85-87, 93-96
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment	Chapters 5, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
Theoretical foundations about human motivation and behavior	Chapter 12
Important terms that relate to human motivation and behavior	Chapter 12, Key terms at end of chapter Chapter 12, most key points
How knowledge of human motivation and behavior should influence strategies for organizing and supporting individual and group work in the classroom	Chapter 11, pp. 377-385 Chapter 12, pp. 402-409, 415-416
Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish students' motivation to learning, and how to help students become self-motivated	Chapter 12, pp. 388-401, 409-414
Principles of effective classroom management and strategies to promote positive relationships, cooperation, and purposeful learning	Chapters 5, 7, 13, 14, 15
Establishing daily procedures and routines	Chapter 13, pp. 424-429, 431-434
Establishing classroom rules, punishments, and rewards	Chapter 13, pp. 427-429, 431-434
Giving timely feedback	Chapter 7, p. 231 Chapter 14, pp. 457-458, 465
Maintaining accurate records	Chapter 14, pp. 473-475, 478-479
Communicating with parents and caregivers	Chapter 5, p. 164 Chapter 16, pp. 519-520
Using objective behavior descriptions	Chapter 13, pp. 437-438
Response to student misbehavior	Chapter 13, pp. 434-443
Arrangement of classroom space	Chapter 13, pp. 428-429
Pacing and structure of the lesson	Chapter 13, pp. 424-429
II. Instruction and Assessment
Instructional Strategies	Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14
Major cognitive processes associated with student learning	Chapters 8, 9, 10, 11
Critical thinking	Not covered
Creative thinking	Not covered
Higher-order thinking	Chapter 9, pp. 277-292 Chapter 10, pp. 324-334 Chapter 11, pp. 368-369
Inductive and deductive thinking	Chapter 10, pp. 321-322
Problem-structuring and problem-solving	Chapter 10, pp. 324-334 Chapter 11, pp. 369-370
Invention	Not covered
Memorization and recall	Chapter 8, pp. 238-253, 257-260 Chapter 11, pp. 358-362
Major categories, advantages, and appropriate uses of instructional strategies	Chapters 6, 7, 8, 10, 11
Cooperative learning	Chapter 11, pp. 377-383
Direct instruction	Chapter 11, pp. 354-358
Discovery learning	Chapter 10, pp. 310-319 Chapter 11, pp. 362-370
Whole-group discussion	Chapter 10, pp. 319-323
Independent study	Chapter 6, pp. 203-204 Chapter 7, pp. 220-221
Interdisciplinary instruction	Not covered
Concept mapping	Chapter 8, p. 269 Chapter 11, pp. 359-361
Inquiry method	Not covered
Questioning	Chapter 8, pp. 260-261, 267 Chapter 11, p. 369
Principles, techniques, and methods associated with major instructional strategies	Chapter 11
Direct instruction	Chapter 11, pp. 354-358
Student-centered models	Chapter 11, pp.362-377
Methods for enhancing student learning through the use of a variety of resources and materials	All chapters
Computers, internet resources, Web pages, email	Technology section(s) of each chapter
Audiovisual technologies such as videotapes and compact discs	Chapter 4, pp. 112-114 Chapter 5, p. 161 Chapter 6, pp. 202-203, 205 Chapter 7, p. 220 Chapter 8, pp. 270-273 Chapter 9, pp. 302-304 Chapter 10, pp. 339-343 Chapter 11, pp. 356, 362, 384-385 Chapter 12, pp. 417-418 Chapter 14, p. 480
Local experts	Chapter 10, pp. 327, 340-341
Primary documents and artifacts	Not covered
Field trips	Chapter 10, pp. 314-316
Libraries	Not covered
Service learning	Chapter 5, p. 164
Planning Instruction	Chapters 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15
Techniques for planning instruction to meet curriculum goals, including the incorporation of learning theory, subject matter, curriculum development, and student development	Chapters 11, 14, 15
National and state learning standards	Chapter 14, p. 461 Chapter 15, pp. 502, 504-512, 514-516, 520
State and local curriculum frameworks	Not covered
State and local curriculum guides	Not covered
Scope and sequence in specific disciplines	Not covered
Units and lessons	Not covered
Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, psychomotor	Chapter 11, pp. 349-350
Learner objectives and outcomes	Chapter 11, pp. 348-354
Techniques for creating effective bridges between curriculum goals and students' experiences	Chapters 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13
Modeling	Chapter 9, pp. 289-292, 293-298
Guided practice	Chapter 9, pp. 295, 299-300 Chapter 11, pp. 356-357
Independent practice, including homework	Chapter 6, pp. 203-204 Chapter 7, pp.220-221 Chapter 11, pp. 356-357, 377-378
Transitions	Chapter 13, pp. 427-428, 431-432
Activating students' prior knowledge	Chapter 8, pp. 240-241 Chapter 10, pp. 310-311, 327
Anticipating preconceptions	Chapter 2, pp. 35-40, 50-52 Chapter 3, pp. 81-82
Encouraging exploration and problem-solving	Chapter 10, pp. 324-334, 338-343 Chapter 11, pp. 362-370
Building new skills on those previously acquired	Chapter 10, pp. 334-338
Assessment Strategies	Chapters 14, 15
Types of assessments	Chapter 14, pp. 458-469 Chapter 15, pp. 495-497
Characteristics of assessments	Chapter 14, pp. 458-469 Chapter 15, pp. 491-495
Scoring assessments	Chapter 14, pp. 464-488 Chapter 15, pp. 498-502
Uses of assessments	Chapter 14, pp. 457-458 Chapter 15, pp. 492-493
Understanding of measurement theory and assessment-related issues	Pages 492-495, 497-511
III. Communication Techniques
Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal communication techniques	Chapter 5, pp. 137-138 Chapter 13, pp. 424-443
Effect of cultural and gender differences on communications in the classroom	Chapters 4, pp. 118-127 Chapter 5, pp. 137-138, 147-149
Types of questions that can stimulate discussion in different ways and for different purposes	Chapters 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11
Probing for learner understanding	Chapter 4, pp. 127-128 Chapter 10, p. 322 Chapter 11, p. 356, 368-369
Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes	Chapter 2, pp. 49-50, 57-58, 64 Chapter 8, pp. 269-270 Chapter 9, pp. 295-297, 302-304 Chapter 10, pp. 325-334
Promoting risk-taking and problem-solving	Chapter 10, pp. 319-323, 324-334 Chapter 11, pp. 353-354, 368-370
Facilitating factual recall	Chapter 4, pp. 127-128 Chapter 8, pp. 257-260, 266 Chapter 10, pp. 353-354
Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking	Chapter 2, pp. 57-58, 64 Chapter 4, pp. 127-128 Chapter 10, pp. 319-323, 330-334 Chapter 11, pp. 367-370
Stimulating curiosity	Chapter 4, pp. 127-128 Chapter 6, pp. 207-208
Helping students to question	Chapter 8, pp. 260-261, 264-266, 267 Chapter 9, pp. 297-301 Chapter 10, pp. 325-327, 330-333, 340-341
IV. Profession and Community
The Reflective Practitioner	Chapters 1, 16
Types of resources available for professional development and learning	Chapters 1, 16
Professional literature	Chapter 1, p. 18 Chapter 16, p. 536
Colleagues	Chapter 16, pp. 525-528, 535
Professional associations	Not covered
Professional development activities	Chapter 16, pp. 5525-535
Ability to read and understand articles and books about current views, ideas, and debates regarding best teaching practices	Chapters 1, 16 Chapter 1, pp. 13-14 Chapter 16, pp. 535, 536
Why personal reflection on teaching practices is critical, and approaches that can be used to achieve this	Chapters 1, 16 Chapter 1, pp. 13-14 Chapter 16, pp. 523-536
The Larger Community	Chapters 3, 5, 6
Role of the school as a resource to the larger community	Chapter 5, Page 164
Factors in the students' environment outside of school (family circumstances, community environments, health and economic conditions) that may influence students' life and learning	Chapter 3, pp. 79, 80, 91-94 Chapter 5, pp. 136-145
Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians and leaders in the community in the educational process	Chapter 5, p. 164
Major laws related to students' rights and teacher responsibilities	Chapter 6
Equal education	Chapter 6, pp. 178-183
Appropriate education for handicapped students	Chapter 6, pp. 178-203
Confidentiality and privacy	Not covered
Appropriate treatment of students	Chapter 6, pp. 178-203
Reporting situations related to possible child abuse	Not covered