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behavioral approach Approach to leadership that tries to identify behaviors that differentiated effec-tive leaders from nonleaders. It uses rules of thumb, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions.
bounded rationality The idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it.
brainstorming A technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in the development of numerous alternative courses of action.
certainty Condition under which the manager knows the outcomes of each alternative.
cognitive dissonance The anxiety a person experiences when he or she simultaneously possesses two sets of knowledge or perceptions that are contradictory or incongruent.
conflict model A very personal approach to decision making because it deals with the personal conflicts that people experience in particularly difficult decision situations.
contingency plans Alternative actions to take if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate.
decision making The process of choosing from among several alternatives.
decision rule A statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation.
defensive avoidance Entails making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact with associated issues because there appears to be no hope of finding a better solution.
Delphi technique A method of systematically gathering judgments of experts for use in developing forecasts.
escalation of commitment The tendency to persist in an ineffective course of action when evidence reveals that the project cannot succeed.
ethics An individual's personal beliefs about what is right and wrong or good and bad.
group polarization The tendency for a group's average postdiscussion attitudes to be more extreme than its average prediscussion attitudes.
groupthink Occurs when a group's overriding concern is a unanimous decision rather than critical analysis of alternatives.
hypervigilance A frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisficing strategy.
negotiation The process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement even though they have different preferences.
nominal group technique Technique in which group members follow a generate-discussion-vote cycle until they reach an appropriate decision.
nonprogrammed decision A decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule.
practical approach The approach to decision making that combines the steps of the rational approach with the conditions in the behavioral approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in organizations.
PRAM model This model guides the negotiator through the four steps of planning for agreement, building relationships, reaching agreements, and maintaining relationships.
problem solving A form of decision making in which the issue is unique and alternatives must be developed and evaluated without the aid of a programmed decision rule.
programmed decision A decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed.
rationaldecision-making approach A systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions.
risk Condition under which the decision maker cannot know with certainty what the outcome of a given action will be but has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes.
satisficing Examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found.
self-reactions Comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards.
suboptimizing Knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization.
uncertainty Condition under which the decision maker lacks enough information to estimate the probability of possible outcomes.
unconflicted adherence Continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks.
unconflicted change Involves making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks.
vigilant information processing Involves thoroughly investigating all possible alternatives, weighing their costs and benefits before making a decision, and developing contingency plans.