Glossary
Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior




acceptance theory of authority the theory that the manager's authority depends on the subordinate's acceptance of the manager's right to give directives and to expect compliance with them

accomodation occurs when the parties' goals are compatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the goals' attainment

adhocracy "This structure is typically found in young organizations in highly technical fields Within it, decision making is spread throughout the organization, power resides with the experts, horizontal and vertical specialization exists, and there is little formalization "

administrative hierarchy "the system of reporting relationships in the organization, from the lowest to the highest managerial levels "

affinity group "collections of employees from the same level in the organization who meet on a regular basis to share information, capture emerging opportunities, and solve problems "

agreeableness a person's ability to get along with others

all-channel network "in this type of network, all members communicate with all other members "

assimilation the process through which members of a minority group are forced to learn the ways of the dominant group

attitudes "a person's complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people"

authoritarianism the belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations

authority power that has been legitimized within a particular social context

avoidance (negative reinforcement) the opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior






behavioral approach "approach to leadership that tries to identify behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from nonleaders; uses rules of thumb, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions "

behavioral approach to leadership "an approach to leadership that tries to identify behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from nonleaders; uses rules of thumb, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions "

bounded rationality the idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it

brainstorming a technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in the development of numerous alternative courses of action

burnout a sense of exhaustion that develops when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time






centralization astructural policy in which decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the organizational hierarchy

chain network "in this type of network, each member communicates with the person above and below, except for the individuals on each end, who each communicate with only one person "

change agent a person responsible for managing a change effort

channel noise a disturbance in communication that is primarily a function of the medium

charisma a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance from others

charismatic leadership a type of influence based on the leader's personal charisma

circle network "in this type of network, each member communicates with the people on both sides but with no one else "

classical conditioning a simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus

classical organization theory an early approach to management that focused on how organizations can be structured most effectively to meet their goals

coercive power the extent to which a person has the ability to punish or physically or psychologically harm someone else

cognitive dissonance the anxiety a person experiences when he or she simultaneously possesses two sets of knowledge or perceptions that are contradictory or incongruent

collaboration occurs when the interaction between groups is very important to goal attainment and the goals are compatible

collectivism the extent to which people emphasize the good of the group or society

command group "a relatively permanent, formal group with functional reporting relationships; usually included in the organization chart "

communication and decision making the stage of group development where members discuss their feelings more openly and agree on group goals and individual roles in the group

communication fidelity the degree of correspondence between the message intended by the source and the message understood by the receiver

compensation package "the total array of money (wages, salary, commission) incentives, benefits, perquisites, and awards provided by the organization to an employee "

competition occurs when the goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to meeting goals

compressed workweek a situation in which employees work a full forty-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days

compromise occurs when the interaction is moderately important to meeting goals and the goals are neither completely compatible nor completely incompatible

conceptual skills skills used to think in the abstract

conflict a disagreement among parties that has both positive and negative characteristics

conflict model a very personal approach to decision making because it deals with the personal conflicts that people experience in particularly difficult decision situations

conflict resolution occurs when a manager resolves a conflict that has become harmful or serious

conflict stimulation the creation and constructive use of conflict by a manager

conscientiousness the number of goals on which a person focuses

consideration behavior behavior that involves being concerned with subordinates' feelings and respecting subordinates' ideas

contingency approach an approach to organization design in which the desired outcomes for the organization can be achieved in several ways

contingency plans alternative actions to take if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate

continuous reinforcement behvarior that is rewarded every time it occurs

contributions "what the individual's contributes to an organization, including effort, skills, ability, time, and loyalty"

control and organization "the stage of group development when the group is mature; members work together and are flexible, adaptive, and self-correcting"

controlling is the process of monitoring and correcting the actions of the organization and its members to keep them directed toward their goals

cosmopolite an idividual who inks the organization to the external environment and may also be an opinion leader in the group

creativity the ability to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas






decision making the process of choosing from among several alternatives

decision making roles "key roles iniclude the entrepreneur, the disturbance handler, the resource allocator, and the negotiator"

decision rule a statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation

decoding the process by which the receiver of the message interprets its meaning

defensive avoidance entails making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact with associated issues because there appears to be no hope of finding a better solution

delegation the transfer to others of the authority to make decisions and use organizational resources

Delphi technique a method of systematically gathering judgments of experts for use in developing forecasts

departmentalization the manner in which divided tasks are combined and allocated to work groups

diagnostic skills skils used to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to problems

divisionalized form "this structure is typical of old, very large organizations; the organization is divided according to the different markets served "

dual-structure theory "identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction."

dysfunctional behaviors work-related behaviors that detract from organizational performance






effort-to-performance expectancy a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance

emotional intelligence (EQ) "the extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills"

employee-centered leader behavior behavior that involves attempting to build effective work groups with high performance goals

empowerment "the process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority "

encoding the process by which the message is translated from an idea or thought into transmittable symbols

environmental complexity the number of environmental components that impinge on organizational decision making

environmental dynamism the degree to which environmental components that impinge on organizational decision making change

environmental uncertainty exists when managers have little information about environmental events and their impact on the organization

equity the belief that one is being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity os the belief that one is being treated unfairly in relation to others

ERG Theory "theory that describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs"

ethics an individual's personal beliefs about what is right and wrong or good and bad

expectancy theory theory that suggests people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it

expert power the extent to which a person controls information that is valuable to someone else

extinction decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior.

extraversion "the quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is characterized by more social discomfort"






fixed-interval reinforcement provides reinforcement on a fixed time schedule

fixed-ratio reinforcement provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors

flexible reward system allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suits their needs

flexible work schedules (flextime) these schedules give employees more personal control over the hours they work each day

formal group a group formed by an organization to do its work

formalization the degree to which rules and procedures shape the jobs and activities of employees

friendship group a group that is relatively permanent and informal and draws its benefits from the social relationships among its members






gatekeeper an individual who has a strategic position in the network that allows him or her to control information moving in either direction through a channel

general adaptation syndrome (GAS) "a cycle through which stress occurs: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion"

general environment "the broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates, including political, legal, sociocultural, technological, economic, and international factors "

goal acceptance the extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own

goal commitment the extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal

goal compatibility the extent to which the goals of more than one person or group can be achieved at the same time

goal difficulty the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort

goal specificity the clarity and precision of a goal

grapevine an informal system of communication that coexists with the formal system

group two or more people who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by each other person

group cohesiveness the extent to which a group is committed to staying together

group composition the degree of similarity or difference among group members on factors important to the group's work

group performance factors "factors that afect the success of the group in fulfilling its goals, including: composition, size, norms, and cohesiveness "

group polarization the tendency for a group's average postdiscussion attitudes to be more extreme than its average prediscussion attitudes

group size the number of members of the group; it affects the number of resources available to perform the task

groupthink occurs when a group's overriding concern is a unanimous decision rather than critical analysis of alternatives






Hawthorne studies " conducted between 1927 and 1932, led to some of the first discoveries of the importance of human behavior in organizations"

Hersey and Blanchard model model that identifies different combinations of leadership presumed to work best with different levels of organizational maturity on the part of followers

hierarchy of needs theory Abraham Maslow's hierarchy that assumes human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance

human organization "Rensis Likert's approach that is based on supportive relationships, participation, and overlapping work groups "

human relations approach an approach to motivation that suggests that favorable employee attitudes result in motivation to work hard

human relations movement "the beginning of organizational behavior, was based on the assumption that employee satisfaction is a key determinant of performance"

human resource approach an approach to motivation that assumes employees want and are able to make genuine contributions to the organization

hygiene factors factors that are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security

hypervigilance "a frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisficing strategy "






ideal bureaucracy Weber's model that is characterized by a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules and procedures designed to create an optimally effective system for large organizations

impression management a direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her own image in the eyes of others

incentive systems plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of performance

incremental innovation continues the technical improvement and extends the applications of radical and systems innovations

incubation the stage of less intense conscious concentration during which a creative person lets the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop

indirect compensation (benefits) refers to nonwage or salary compensation such as paid time off and insurance coverage

individual differences personal attributes that vary from one person to another

individualism the extent to which people place primary value on themselves

inducements the tangible and intangible rewards provided by organizations to individuals

influence "the ability to affect the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviors of others "

informal group a group that is established by its members

informational roles "key roles include the monitor, the disseminator, and the spokesperson"

initiating-structure behavior behavior that involves clearly defining the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know what is expected of them

innovation "the process of creating and doing new things that are introduced into the marketplace as products, processes, or services "

insight the stage in the creative process when all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come together to produce a breakthrough

interest group a group that is relatively temporary and informal and is organized around a common activity or interest of its members

interpersonal roles " key roles include the figurehead, the leader, and the liaison"

interpersonal skills "skills used to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups"

intrapreneurship entrepreneurial activity that takes place within the context of a large corporation

isolate an individual who tends to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others

isolated dyad two people who tend to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others






jargon "the specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or social group "

job characteristics approach identifies five motivational properties of tasks and three psychological states of people

job design how organizations define and structure jobs

job enlargement involves giving workers more tasks to perform

job enrichment Entails giving workers more tasks to perform and more control over how to perform them

job rotation systematically moving workers from one job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and boredom

job satisfaction the extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work

job sharing a situation in which two or more part time employees share one full-time job

job specialization "as advocated by scientific management, it can help improve efficiency, but it can also promote monotony and boredom "

job-centered leader behavior "behavior that involves paying close attention to the work of subordinates, explaining work procedures, and demonstrating a strong interest in performance "






leadership substitutes "individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader's ability to affect subordinates' satisfaction and performance "

leading is the process of getting the organization's members to work together toward achieving the organization's goals

learning a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience

least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale scale that presumes to measure a leader's motivation

legitimate power power that is granted by virtue of one's position in the organization

liaison "an individual who serves as a bridge between groups, tying groups together and facilitating the communication flow needed to integrate group activities "

linking role a position for a person or group that serves to coordinate the activities of two or more organizational groups

locus of control the extent to which people believe their circumstances are a function of their own actions versus external factors beyond their control

long-term orientation people with a focus on the future

LPC theory of leadership theory that suggests that a leader's effectiveness depends on the situation






Machiavellianism a behavior which causes people to behave to gain power and to control the behavior of others

machine bureaucracy "this structure is typical of large, well-established organizations; work is highly specialized and formalized, and decision making is usually concentrated at the top "

management by objectives (MBO) a collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization

management functions "set forth by Henri Fayol; they include planning, organizing, command, coordination, and control "

management teams consist of managers from various areas; they coordinate work teams

masculinity (assertiveness or materialism) "the extent to which the dominant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition of money and material goods, over concern for people, relationships among people, and the overall quality of life "

matrix design combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each; typically combined are a product or project departmentalization scheme and a functional structure

mechanistic structure "this structure is primarily hierarchical; interactions and communications are typically vertical, instructions come from the boss, knowledge is concentrated at the top, and loyalty and obedience are required to sustain membership "

medium the channel or path through which the message is transmitted

Michigan leadership studies these studies defined job-centered and employee-centered leadership as opposite ends of a single leadership continuum

motivation and productivity "the stage of group development in which members cooperate, help each other, and work toward accomplishing tasks "

motivation factors factors that are intrinsic to the work itself and include achievement and recognition

multicultural organization "an organization that possesses six characteristics: pluralism, full structural integration, full integration of informal networks, an absence of prejudice and discrimination, equal identification among employees with organizational goals for majority and minority groups, and low levels of intergroup conflict"

mutual acceptance group the stage of group development that is characterized by members sharing information about themselves and getting to know each other






need for achievement the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past

need for affiliation the need for human companionship

need for power the desire to control the resources in one's environment

need-based theories of motivation theories that assume that need deficiencies cause behavior

negative affectivity "people who are generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood"

negative emotionality characterized by moodiness and insecurity

negotiation "the process in which two or more parties, people or groups reach agreement even though they have different preferences"

noise any disturbance in the communication process that interferes with or distorts communication

nominal group technique technique in which group members follow a generate-discussion-vote cycle until they reach an appropriate decision

nonprogrammed decision a decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule

norm a standard against which the appropriateness of a behavior is judged






Ohio State leadership studies these studies defined leader consideration and initiating-structure behaviors as independent dimensions of leadership

openness the capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information

organic structure "this structure is set up like a network; interactions and communications are horizontal, knowledge resides wherever it is most useful to the organization, and membership requires a commitment to the organization's tasks "

organization a group of people working together to attain common goals

organization behvior "the study of human behavior in organizational settings, of the interface between human behavior and the organization, and of the organization itself"

organization chart "a diagram showing all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal communication in the organization "

organization climate "current situations in an organization and the linkages among work groups, employees, and work performance "

organization culture the set of values that helps the organization's employees understand which actions are considered acceptable and which unacceptable

organization development the process of planned change and improvement of the organization through application of knowledge of the behavioral sciences

organization structure "the system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within which the organization does its work "

organizational behavior modification (OB mod) the application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings

organizational citizenship the extent to which a person's behavior makes a positive overall contribution to the organization

organizational commitment a person's identification with and attachment to an organization

organizational downsizing a popular trend aimed at reducing the size of corporate staff and middle management to reduce costs

organizational environment "everything outside an organization, incuding people, other organizations, economic factors, objects, and events that lie outside the boundaries of the organization "

organizational goals objectives that management seeks to achieve in pursuing the firm's purpose

organizational politics "activities carried out by people to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their desired outcomes "

organizational socialization the process through which employees learn about the firm's culture and pass their knowledge and understanding on to others

organizational technology the mechanical and intellectual processes that transform inputs into outputs

organizing "is the process of designing jobs, grouping jobs into units, and establishing patterns of authority between jobs and units"

outcome anything that results from performing a particular behavior

overdetermination occurs because numerous organizational systems are in place to ensure that employees and systems behave as expected to maintain stability






participation the process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work

Path goal theory of leadership theory that suggests that effective leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that will lead to desired rewards (goals)

perception the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment

performance behaviors the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display

performance management system (PMS) comprises the processes and activites involved in performance appraisals

performance measurement (performance appraisal) "the process by which someone (1) evaluates an employee's work behaviors by measurement and comparison with previously established standards, (2) documents the results, and (3) communicates the results to the employee "

performance-to-outcome expectancy an individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes

perquisites "special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers "

personal power "resides in the person, regardless of the position he or she fills "

personality the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another

person-job fit the extent to which the individual's contributions match the inducements offered by the organization

planning is the process of determining an organization's desired future position and the best means of getting there

pluralistic organization an organization that has diverse membership and takes steps to fully involve all people who differ from the dominant group

position power "resides in the position, regardless of who is filling that position "

positive affectivity "people who are upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, and see things in a positive light "

positive reinforcement a reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting behavior

power the potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group

power distance the extent to which less powerful persons accept the unequal distribution of power

practical approach to decision making this approach combines the steps of the rational approach with the conditions in the behavioral approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in organizations

PRAM model "this model guides the negotiator through the four steps of planning for agreement, building relationships, reaching agreements, and maintaining relationships "

preparation "usually the first stage in the creative process, includes education and formal training"

primary dimensions of diversity "factors that are either inborn or exert extraordinary influence on early socialization: age, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities, race, and sexual orientation "

problem solving a form of decision making in which the issue is unique and alternatives must be developed and evaluated without the aid of a programmed decision rule

problem-solving teams temporary teams established to attack specific problems in the workplace

procedural justice the extent to which the dynamics of an organization's decision-making processes are judged to be fair by those most affected by them

process-based perspectives on motivation perspectives that focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs

product development teams combinations of work teams and problem-solving teams that create new designs for products or services that will satisfy customer needs

professional bureaucracy "this structure is characterized by horizontal specialization by professional area of expertise, little formalization, and decentralized decision making "

programmed decision a decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed

psychological contract a person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return

punishment "an unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior"






quality circles small groups of employees from the same work area who regularly meet to discuss and recommend solutions to workplace problems

quality of work life the extent to which workers can satisfy important personal needs through their experiences in the organization






radical innovation a major breakthrough that changes or creates whole industries

rational decision-making approach "a systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions "

receiver "The individual, group, or organization that perceives the encoded symbols; the receiver may or may not decode them and try to understand the intended message "

referent power exists when one person wants to be like or imitates someone else

refreezing the process of making new behaviors relatively permanent and resistant to further change

reinforcement consequence of behavior

reinforcement theory theory based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences

responsibility an obligation to do something with the expectation of achieving some act or output

reward power the extent to which a person controls rewards that another person values

reward system "the system that consists of all organizational components, including people, processes, rules and procedures, and decision-making activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in exchange for their contributions to the organization "

rightsizing "the process of optimizing the size of an organization's workforce through downsizing, expanding, and/or outsourcing"

risk propensity the degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions






schedules of reinforcement schedules that indicate when or how often managers should reinforce certain behaviors

scientific management "one of the first approaches to management, focused on the efficiency of individual workers and assumed that employees are motivated by money "

secondary dimensions of diversity "factors that are important to us as individuals and that to some extent define us to others but are less permanent and can be adapted or changed: educational background, geographic location, income, marital status, military experience, parental status, religious beliefs, and work experience "

selective perception the process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs

self-efficacy the extent to which people believe they can accomplish their goals even if they failed to do so in the past

self-esteem the extent to which a person believes he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual

self-reactions comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards

semantics the study of language forms

short-term orientation people with a focus on the past or present

simple structure this structure is typical of relatively small or new organizations and has little specialization or formalization; power and decision making are concentrated in the chief executive

situational perspective "theory that suggests that in most organizations, situations and outcomes are contingent on, or infulenced by, other variables"

social learning "occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result "

social loafing the tendency of some members of groups to put forth less effort in a group than they would when working alone

social responsibility an organization's obligation to protect and contribute to the social environment in which it functions

socialization the process through which individuals become social beings

source "the individual, group, or organization interested in communicating something to another party "

span of control the number of people who report to a manager

stereotypes judgments about others that reinforce beliefs about superiority and inferiority

stereotyping yhe process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute

strategic values the basic beliefs about an organization's environment that shape its strategy

strategy the plans and actions necessary to achieve organizational goals

stress an individual's response to a strong stimulus

stressor a strong stimulus that results in stress

structural change a systemwide organization development involving a major restructuring of the organization or instituting programs such as quality of work life

structural imperatives "the three structural imperatives, environment, technology, and size, are the three primary determinants of organization structure "

suboptimizing knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization

superleadership "occurs when a leader gradually and purposefully turns over power, responsibility, and control to a self-managing work group"

superordinate goal an organizational goal that is more important to the well-being of the organization and its members than the more specific goals of interacting parties

surface value the objective meaning or worth a reward has to an employee

symbolic value the subjective and personal meaning or worth a reward has to an employee

systems innovation creates a new functionality by assembling parts in new ways






task environment "this environment includes specific organizations, groups, and individuals that influence the organization "

team "a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable "

technical skills the skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization

telecommuting a work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site

Theory X "described by Douglas McGregor, is an approach to management that takes a negative and pessimistic view of workers"

Theory Y "described by Douglas McGregor, is an approach to management that takes a positive and optimistic perspective on workers"

trait approach an approach that attempted to identify stable and enduring character traits that differentiated effective leaders from nonleaders

transformational leadership "the set of abilities that allows the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that change, and to execute that change effectively "

transition management "the process of systematically planning, organizing, and implementing change "

transmission the process through which the symbols that represent a message are sent to the receiver

turnover occurs when people quit their jobs

Type A Individuals "people who are extremely competitive, highly committed to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency"

Type B Individuals "people who are less competitive, less committed to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency"






uncertainty avoidance the extent to which people prefer to be in unambiguous situations

unconflicted adherence continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks

unconflicted change involves making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks

unfreezing the process by which people become aware of the need for change

universal approach an approach to organization design in which prescriptions or propositions are designed to work in any circumstance






valence the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person

valuing diversity the act of putting an end to the assumption that everyone who is not a member of the dominant group must assimilate

variable-interval reinforcement varies the amount of time between reinforcements

variable-ratio reinforcement varies the number of behaviors between reinforcements

verification the final stage of the creative process in which the validity or truthfulness of the insight is determined; the feedback portion of communication in which the receiver sends a message to the source indicating receipt of the message and the degree to which he or she understood the message

vigilant information processing "involves thoroughly investigating all possible alternatives, weighing their costs and benefits before making a decision, and developing contingency plans "

virtual teams teams that work together by computer and other electronic communication utilities; members move in and out of meetings and the team itself as the situation dictates

Vroom's decision tree approach to leadership this model attempts to prescribe how much participation subordinates should be allowed in making decisions






wheel network "in this type of network, information flows between the person at the end of each spoke and the person in the middle "

work teams "include all the people working in an area, are relatively permanent, and do the daily work, making decisions regarding how the work of the team is done "

workforce diversity "the similarities and differences in such characteristics as age, gender, ethnic heritage, physical abilities and disabilities, race, and sexual orientation among the employees of organizations"

workplace behavior a pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness

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