Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) are frequent, small-scale assessments conducted in classrooms to determine the level and nature of student learning (Angelo 1991). CATs provide instructors with information about student learning that is immediate, giving instructors the chance to alter their courses according to student need on a real-time basis. Recent research has demonstrated CATs ability to draw students more deeply into the learning process (Cohen and Kugel 1994), to improve student participation (Harwood 1999), and to help students become more effective, self-assessing, self-directed learners (Angelo and Cross 1993).

This current study investigates the effects of CATs on student’s intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is a feeling of satisfaction, competency, control or freedom that results from completing an interesting task (American Psychological Association 1997). Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci and Ryan 1985) provides a theoretical foundation for the study. According to this theory, self determination (or perceived control, the extent of control over a task one feels) has a large impact on overall intrinsic motivation for a task. Self determination rises any time one perceives an increase in the level of control one has over a task.

So there are two reasons CATs may increase a student’s sense of self determination in a classroom setting. First, the act of completing a CAT, we propose, may give students the impression they have some control over the course. The instructor has asked for student input, sending a signal to students that their ideas and opinions of how the class proceeds are important. This signaling effect may thus increase self determination.

A second effect on self determination may come from the CATs’ feedback feature. Usually, instructors tell students (truthfully) they will use information obtained from CATs to guide decisions about course coverage, teaching techniques, quiz or exam timing and other important aspects of running a class. Students will see their input has an impact when the instructor acts upon the results. For example, when the course subtly changes to accommodate their needs set forth in the CAT, students see the instructor’s response to it. This input/response circuit may give students a feeling of having some control over the course.

There are benefits to improving student intrinsic motivation. In a classroom setting, students who are more intrinsically motivated are more likely to do extra homework, re-read the text to assure complete comprehension, or seek out help when having difficulties with course material. Although these actions a student may take are not immediately rewarded, it is probable these extra efforts improve learning. For example, research has found a strong link between student intrinsic motivation and performance (Harackiewicz, Barron, and Elliot 1998). Therefore we believe instructors should be interested in techniques that improve student intrinsic motivation.

Methodology

Data was collected during one semester of introductory financial accounting students at a large university. A total of 127 students in four sections of the course participated in the study. Two sections of students received a CAT 10 times during the course and two sections received no CATs. Several different types of CATs were used and adapted from the suggestions in Cottell and Harwood (1998). The overall format was consistent with that suggested in Harwood (1999). Examples of CATs used in the study are shown below.

During each CAT, students had the chance to ask a question. Then they answered questions posed by the instructor. Responses to the CATs varied based on student answers; responses were always mentioned in the class following the CAT. When many students had similar questions, the questions were answered in class. Instructor responses to the standardized portion of the CATs also varied depending on student responses. In the classes not receiving CATs, the instructors mentioned course changes and other responses that arose from CATs without disclosing the reasons for the comments or changes.

Sample 1: Survey Prior to Information Coverage

Next class, we’re going to talk about financial statements and some of the information they contain. I’d like to know what you know about Financial Statements, and your previous experience with them, so we can make the best use of our class time. Please check all of the following topics you are comfortable with at this time. Also, indicate which items you have personal experience with (the second list).

List 1:	_____ What information is shown on a Balance Sheet? _____ What information is shown on an Income Statement? _____ The differences between Balance Sheets and Income Statements _____ The kinds of transactions that affect Income Statements _____ The kinds of transactions that affect Balance Sheets
List 2:	_____ I have seen financial statements of actual companies before. _____ I use financial statements of actual companies to make investment decisions. _____ I use financial statements of actual companies to make business decisions. _____ I have prepared financial statements as part of a prior accounting class.

Sample 2: Survey After Information Coverage

Today I’m interested in how much you currently think you understand about the topics in this section of the course. Please rate your understanding of the following topics on a scale from 1 (don’t have a clue) to 5 (understand completely).

1 2 3 4 5 The difference between net income and net cash from operations
1 2 3 4 5 How to prepare the Statement of Cash Flows
1 2 3 4 5 How to read and use the Statement of Cash Flows
1 2 3 4 5 How companies make short-term borrowing decisions
1 2 3 4 5 How to convert sales/purchase discount terms to interest rates
1 2 3 4 5 The difference between non-interest bearing and standard notes payable
1 2 3 4 5 How to find interest rates charged on non-interest bearing notes
1 2 3 4 5 How to prepare bank reconciliations
1 2 3 4 5 Why companies prepare bank reconciliations

Student self-determination and overall intrinsic motivation were measured at the end of the semester just prior to students completing regular course evaluations. Questions used to measure self-determination and overall intrinsic motivation were developed based on motivation measures reported in the literature (e.g. Fisher 1978; Becker 1997). The measurements were made at the end of the course because we wanted to measure the overall impacts of CATs on student intrinsic motivation. That is, we wanted to determine whether students subjected to CATs end up more intrinsically motivated than the students not subjected to the CATs, due to the cumulative effects the assessments may have had throughout the course.

This study did not try to determine which CATs impacted intrinsic motivation the most (an interesting question for future research). We used a mix of CAT formats in order to minimize the impact of any one format. These CATs were administered throughout the entire course because we believe CATs’ impact on intrinsic motivation develops over time as students increasingly perceive they have control over some aspects of the course. This perception is unlikely to develop as a result of a single instance of administering a CAT.

Findings

1. Students using CATs had higher feelings of self determination. Students using CATs felt they had more freedom and responsibility to complete the course project, ability to gauge their progress in the course and opportunity for independent thought (mean = 14.44 out of 15) than students not using CATs (mean=13.63). These means differ by a significant amount. In addition, students using CATs felt there was more opportunity to ask questions, to express opinions and to give the instructor input (mean = 15.58 out of 20) than students not using CATs (mean = 14.45). These means also differ by a significant amount. 2. Students using CATs had higher overall intrinsic motivation for the course. Students using CATs reported higher levels of interest, more opportunity to learn something new and interesting, more pleasant effects from effort spent in the course, and higher feelings of accomplishment (mean = 14.95 out of 20) than students not using CATs (mean=13.74). These means differ by a significant amount.

Conclusion

Based on the results of this study, we believe that CATs are an excellent addition to any classroom. They help students convey difficulties and help instructors ensure that they focus on teaching students rather than focus on teaching information. However, there are still many unanswered questions about the impacts of CATs in the classroom. In our study, CAT feedback was used in a positive way to guide the class and the instructor. It was never used to evaluate students or to impact their course grades. While the important impact of CATs on student grades remains unanswered, CATs do, however, provide a convenient vehicle for grading and their use in this regard should be investigated.

References

American Psychological Association. Thesaurus of Psychological Terms. 8th ed. Washington D.C.: (1997): American Psychological Association.

Angelo, T.A. "Introduction and Overview: From Classroom Assessment to Classroom Research." Classroom Research: Early Lessons from Success, Thomas A. Angelo, Editor. San Francisco (1991): Jossey-Bass Inc.

Angelo, T.A. and K.P. Cross. Classroom Assessment Techniques: a Handbook for College Teachers. Second Edition. San Francisco (1993): Jossey-Bass Inc.

Becker, D.A. "The Effects of Choice on Auditors’ Intrinsic Motivation and Performance." Behavioral Research in Accounting 9 (1997):1-19.

Cottell, P.G. and E.M. Harwood. "Using Classroom Assessment Techniques to Improve Students Learning in Accounting Classes." Issues in Accounting Education 13 (1998): 551-564.

Deci, E.L. and R.M. Ryan. Intrinsic Motivation and Self Determination in Human Behavior. New York (1985): Plenum Press.

Fisher, C.D. "The Effects of Personal Control, Competence, and Extrinsic Reward Systems on Intrinsic Motivation." Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 21 (1978): 273-288.

Harackiewicz, J.M., K.E. Barron and A.J. Elliot. "Rethinking Achievement Goals: When Are They Adaptive For College Students and Why?" Educational Psychologist 33 (1998): 1-21.

Harwood, E.M. "Student Perceptions of the Effects of Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs)." Journal of Accounting Education, (1999) forthcoming.